WIKI: This species is of interest to entomologists due to the variety of
subspecies, often only restricted to a specific valley in the Alps. The
beautiful Apollo butterfly has long been prized by collectors, who aim
to possess as many of the variants as possible.
The
Apollo or
Mountain Apollo (
Parnassius apollo), is a
butterfly of the
Papilionidae family.
Conservation
This species is of interest to entomologists due to the variety of
subspecies, often only restricted to a specific valley in the Alps. The
beautiful Apollo butterfly has long been prized by collectors, who aim
to possess as many of the variants as possible. While over-collecting is
believed to have caused populations to decline in some areas, such as
in Spain and Italy, habitat change is thought to be a far more
significant threat to this species’ survival.
[1]
Plantations of conifers, the succession of suitable habitat to
scrubland, agriculture, and urbanization have all reduced the habitat of
the Apollo butterfly. Climate change and acid rain have also been
implicated in this species decline in Fennoscandia. In addition, motor
vehicles have been cited as a cause of Apollo butterfly mortalities;
vehicles on a motorway system near Bozen in South Tyrol, Italy, are said
to have nearly wiped out a race of the Apollo.
[1]
In
Finland, the Apollo was one of the first species of insects declared endangered. The Apollo population in Finland and
Sweden
decreased drastically during the 1950s. The reason for this is not
known, but it is commonly thought to be because of a disease. In Sweden,
it is now restricted to areas that have
limestone in the ground, suggesting that the decrease could hypothetically be related to
acid rain.
[2]
Laws exist to protect the Apollo butterfly in many countries. The Apollo is on the
IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals,
[3] in Appendix II in
CITES .
[1][4] and is mentioned in annex IV of
Habitats Directive. It is protected in other states: the Principality of
Liechtenstein,
Czech Republic
(as critically threatened species in Czech code, Decree for
implementation, No. 395/1992 Sb., and No. 175/2006 Sb.), Turkey and
Poland.
However, these laws focus on the protection of individuals, rather
than their habitat, and so may do little to mitigate the greatest threat
that populations face.
[1] Fortunately, there are a number of projects specifically working to save this Vulnerable insect. A conservation programme in
Pieniny National Park
saved a subspecies of the Apollo butterfly that had declined to just 20
individuals in the early 1990s, through a combination of captive
breeding and habitat protection.
[5]
In south-west Germany, conservationists are working with shepherds to
ensure favourable conditions for the butterfly, which share their
grassland habitat with sheep. For example, grazing periods have been
shifted to avoid the Apollo butterfly larvae stage, which is vulnerable
to being trampled.
[6]
The Apollo butterfly has many subspecies around the world, and some
European subspecies are showing an alarming decline in numbers. This is
mainly caused by habitat destruction, air pollution affecting the
insect's food plants, and butterfly collectors. The Apollo butterfly is
also more vulnerable to predators as it spends two years as a
caterpillar.
Color Polymorphism in the Parnassius apollo
Parnassius apollo
Larva
Color Variation
The Apollo butterfly (
Parnassius apollo) is a beautiful white butterfly, decorated with large black "eye" spots on the forewings and red eye-spots on the hindwings.
[7]
These striking red eye-spots can vary in size and form depending on the
location of the Apollo butterfly, and the bright red colour often fades
in the sun, causing the eye-spots of older individuals to appear more
orange.
[1] The wings are shiny, with slightly transparent edges,
[4]
and some individuals are darker (melanistic); a general phenomenon
common in many butterflies. The caterpillars of this species are velvety
black with orange-red spots along the sides.
[7]
As well as being a great deal of individual variation in the appearance
of the Apollo butterfly, a number of subspecies have also been
described.
- Parnassius apollo apollo
- Parnassius apollo alpherakyi Krulikowsky, 1906
- Parnassius apollo bartholomaeus Stichel, 1899
- Parnassius apollo democratus Kulikowsky, 1906
- Parnassius apollo filabricus Sagarra, 1933 (Sierra de los Filabres)
- Parnassius apollo gadorensis Rougeot & Capdeville, 1969 (Sierra de Gádor)
- Parnassius apollo geminus Schawerda, 1907
- Parnassius apollo graecus Ziegler, 1901
- Parnassius apollo hesebolus Nordmann, 1851
- Parnassius apollo hispanicus Oberthür, 1909 (Spain)
- Parnassius apollo limicola Stichel, 1906
- Parnassius apollo merzbacheri Fruhstorfer, 1906
- Parnassius apollo nevadensis Oberthür, 1891 (Sierra Nevada)
- Parnassius apollo provincialis Kheil, 1905
- Parnassius apollo pyrenaica Harcourt-Bath, 1896
- Parnassius apollo rhodopensis Markowitsch, 1910 (Greece, Balkans)
- Parnassius apollo rhaeticus Fruhstorfer, 1906
- Parnassius apollo rhea (Poda, 1761)
- Parnassius apollo rubidus Fruhstorfer, 1906
- Parnassius apollo sibiricus Nordmann, 1851
- Parnassius apollo sicilae Oberthür, 1891
- Parnassius apollo valesiacus Fruhstorfer, 1906
- Parnassius apollo vinningensis Stichel, 1899 (Moselle, Duitsland)
[8]
For a more complete list of subspecies and type details of specimens in
the British Museum (Natural History) see Ackery, P. R. (1973) A list of
the type-specimens of Parnassius (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in the
British Museum (Natural History).
Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Ent.) 29 (1) (9.XI.1973): 1—35, 1 pl.
online here
Distribution of Color Variation
The drastic climate change of the Pleistocene era forced a separation
of the Red Apollo butterfly population. This in turn played a role in
creating the distinct color changes seen in the species.The Parnassius
apollo became divided and isolated in the Eurasian region during the
glacial period. The large glaciers created a physical barrier between
the population, barring interaction between the groups. Still within
these isolated populations the butterflies migrated westward into
portions of southern Europe where they settled and reproduced. Within
all of these particular isolated populations there is also variation in
the wing color allele.
[9]
There is variation in size between the isolated populations. With the
larger separated populations of butterflies these habitats are used to
sustain populations with larger amount of resources. These larger
populations are called metapopulations and with the smaller separated
sub-populations they create a mainland-island system. The Parnassius
apollo can migrate from habitats and thus create a variation seen in
each isolated population.
[10]
Distribution Pattern Effects on Survival Rate of Parnassius apollo
New environmental pressures lead to the selection of a better suited
color variant within these isolated populations. With this variety there
is a correlation with extinction. In high variation environments there
is cause for extinction in greater numbers of individuals. For example
there is high variation in the Swiss Alps and presently there is a high
rate of individuals becoming extinct.
[11]
One of the probable causes of extinction is the warming of the climate.
It is said that the Red apollo is an “atypical glacial invader” and
that with the warming of the climate in mountainous regions is causing
the butterfly to not readily adapt to such an uncomfortable environment.
[9]
Another possible cause of extinction is the interesting connection
between nectar plant distribution and the Parnassius apollo. If there
was present a constraint of migration from nectar plant populations to
another the Red Apollo’s population would slowly dissipate and
reproduction might seize. This is because the outcrop of the nectar
plants are the sight of reproduction and if the spatial structure is too
far for the butterfly to migrate to the dynamics of the population is
in danger.
[10]
Ecology
Adult Apollo butterflies are seen on the wing in mid-summer,
[4] feeding on nectar produced by flowers.
[12] The females lay eggs, which over-winter and hatch in spring the following year.
[1] The resulting caterpillars feed on stonecrop (
Sedum species) and houseleek (
Sempervivum species).
[7]
When the caterpillar is fully-grown it will pupate on the ground,
forming a loose cocoon from which the adult butterfly emerges following
metamorphosis.
[4]
Related species can be found all over the world. The "Small Apollo" (
Parnassius phoebus) is found in the high mountains while the
Clouded Apollo (
Parnassius mnemosyne) lives in the valleys. The Apollo caterpillar lives on
larkspur and rock plants and is a velvety blue-black with small orange spots.
Distribution and habitat
Habitat of Parnassius apollo. La Thuile, Italy at abt. 2700 a.s.l.
This typically mountain species prefers flowery meadows and pastures
of the continental European mountains, in Spain, Scandinavia and Central
Europe, in the Balkans up to northern Greece and in the Alps between
Italy and France.
[9]
It is also present in some areas of the central Asia. Typical of high
altitudes, its range is from 400 metres (1,300 ft) up to 2,300 metres
(7,500 ft), although it is far more present above 1,000 metres
(3,300 ft).
This species requires specific climatic conditions (cold winter,
sunny summer). It also requires wide open spaces (with a cover of shrubs
less than 5%) and a large surface of lawns (at least 50%). The presence
of the host plant for the caterpillars is critical.
Predation and defensive strategy
The Apollo butterfly shares a variety of defensive strategies with
quite a few species of butterflies. Even from a young age larva exhibit
camouflage by being entirely black. This solid color helps them avoid
detection even at a close distance. However, as they mature, they lose
this advantage by developing two rows of orange dots. These dots greatly
decrease the amount of crypsis.
[13] In addition to this larval camouflage, the larva also shares in a form of
Müllerian mimicry
with a type of millipede, glomeris guttata. Both insects share the
characteristic orange spots and black body and a common habitat. The
millipedes and caterpillars secrete a foul smelling odor to repel
predators.
[13]
Once the butterfly completes its metamorphosis, it has a number of
defensive mechanisms in place to avoid predation. One of the most easily
identifiable traits is the bright eyespots found on the wings. These
eyespots are essentially concentric circle of a wide variety of colors.
Apart from the wide range of colors, eyespots are very limited in their
plasticity. There are three main hypothesis to why these spots may have
developed; they resemble the eyes of an enemy of the predator in order
to intimidate them, they draw the attention of the predator to less
vital components of the butterfly’s body, or the spots are there simply
to surprise the predator. The only disadvantage to these spots is that
they cause the butterfly to be a great deal more conspicuous.
[14]
Another form of defense is the taste of the butterfly. Similar to the
Monarch butterfly,
the Apollo butterfly produces a repulsive taste to its predator. The
butterfly seems to get this foul taste from its plant host, the sedum
stenopetalum. There is a bitter tasting cyano
glucoside,
sarmentonsin, which is found in both the butterfly and the plant. There
is a much higher concentration of sarmentonsin found in the wings as
opposed to the rest of the body.
[15]
The high concentration found in the wings indicates that the wings of
the butterfly would taste much worse comparatively. A common predator,
nesting water pipits, have evolved a strategy to avoid the poor taste of
the butterfly. It has been observed that the bird will remove the wings
before consuming the body.
[16] In theory, this will get rid of the poor tasting elements of the butterfly, leaving only the nutritious body.
Etymology
The species is named in the
classical tradition for the deity
Apollo.
References
This article incorporates text from the
ARKive fact-file "Apollo butterfly" under the
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License and the
GFDL.
- Collins, N.M.
and Morris, M.G. (1985) Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the
World. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
- Lars-Åke Janzon (February 7, 2009). "Mer om apollofjäril" (in Swedish). Naturhistoriska riksmuseet.
- Gimenez Dixon (1996). "Parnassius apollo". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved May 11, 2006.
- Still, J. (1996) Butterflies and Moths of Britain and Europe. Harper Collins, London.
- Witkowsky, Z.,
Budzik, J. and Kosior, A. (1992) Restoration of the Apollo butterfly in
Pieniny National Park. Chrońmy Przyrodę Ojczystą, 1992: 3-4.
- Dolek,
M.; Geyer, A. (2002). "Conserving biodiversity on calcareous grasslands
in the Franconian Jura by grazing: a comprehensive approach". Biological Conservation 104: 351–360. doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(01)00200-2.
- Carter, D. (2000) Butterflies and Moths. Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Smart, P. (1975) The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Butterfly World. Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd, London.
- Todisco, Valentina; Gratton, Paolo; Cesaroni, Donatella; Sbordoni, Valerio. "Phylogeography of Parnassius Apollo: Hints on Taxonomy and Conservation of a Vulnerable Glacial Butterfly Invader". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 101 (1): 178. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01476.x. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- Brommer, Jon; Fred, Marianne (2001). "Movement of the Apollo butterfly Parnassius apollo related to host plant and nectar plant patches". Ecological Entomology 24 (2): 125–131. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2311.1999.00190.x.
- Habel,
Jan; Reuter, Manuela; Drees, Claudia; Pfaender, Jobst (2012). "Does
Isolation Affect Phenotypic Variability and Fluctuating Asymmetry in the
Endangered Red Apollo?". J Insect Conservation 16: 571–579. doi:10.1007/s10841-011-9442-3.
- Fred,
M.S.; O'Hara, R.B.; Brommer, J.E. (2006). "Consequences of the spatial
configuration of resources for the distribution and dynamics of the
endangered Parnassius apollo butterfly". Biological Conservation 130: 183–192. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.12.012.
- Descimon,
H., and M. Deschamps-Cottin. "A Possible Case of Mimicry in the
Caterpillar of Parnassius Apollo (L.) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)."
Linneana Belgica 15.8 (1996): 309-10. Print.
- Stevens, Martin.
"The Role of Eyespots as Anti-predator Mechanisms, Principally
Demonstrated in the Lepidoptera." Biological Reviews 80.04 (2005): 573.
- Nishida, R., and M.
Rothschild. "A Cyanoglucoside Stored by ASedum-feeding Apollo
Butterfly,Parnassius Phoebus." Experientia 51.3 (1995): 267-69.
- Hendricks, P. A. U. L."Avian predation of alpine butterflies." Journal of the Lepidopterists Society 40.2 (1986): 129.
Further reading
- Parnassius gallery, including many subspecies of Parnassius apollo
- Xavier Mérit and Véronique Mérit: Les Parnassius de France,
textes de Xavier Mérit-Véronique Mérit et Henri Descimon, cartes de
répartition, planches, et photos en nature de Luc Manil, Xavier Mérit et
Bernard Turlin, bibliographies, Bulletin des Lépidoptéristes parisiens,
Volume 15 (2006), n°33 (numéro thématique), Paris, septembre 2006 (56
pages).
- Pierre Capdeville, 1978–1980, Les races géographiques de Parnassius apollo, 191 p - 26 tables - maps - 24 plates in colours, Sciences Nat, Venette.
- Jean-Claude Weiss : The Parnassiinae of the World, Pt. 4, 2005, Hillside Books, Canterbury. [1]
- Edwin Möhn, 2005 Schmetterlinge der Erde, Butterflies of the world
Part 23 Papilionidae XII. Parnassius apollo. Edited by Erich Bauer and
Thomas Frankenbach Keltern : Goecke & Evers ; Canterbury : Hillside
Books. ISBN 9783937783161
Males from Icones Ornithopterorum volume 2
Male (bottom)
